[ Chapter 2: Information Transfer by Electrical Excitation ]

[ Brain & Behavior ]

[ Brain Structure (½Å°æ°èÀÇ ±¸Á¶) ]

[ Nerve Cells (NEURON) (½Å°æ¼¼Æ÷) ]

[ Resting Membrane Potential ]

[ Action Potential ]



2.3 Currents through Potential-Dependent Membrane Channels
Membrane patch clamp
Fig. 2.11: patch clamp
1 um2 Á¤µµÀÇ ÀÛÀº ¸· ºÎÀ§¸¦ glass pipette·Î suctionÇØ¼­ ¸·ÀÇ ´Ù¸¥ ºÎÀ§¿Í Àü±âÀûÀ¸·Î Â÷´Ü½ÃŲ(Àü±âÀû ÀúÇ×: more than 1 GOhm) ÈÄ patch³»ÀÇ Ã¤³ÎÀ» ÅëÇÑ currentsÀÇ º¯È­¸¦ ƯÁ¤ membrane potential level¿¡¼­ ÃøÁ¤ÇÑ´Ù.
Currents through single Na+ channels

Fig. 2.12: Currents through sodium channels (ÁÂÃø)
MPÀ» 14 ms µ¿¾È -80mV¿¡¼­ -40mV·Î º¯È­½ÃŰ¸é¼­ Na°ú K membrane currents¸¦ 10¹ø ÃøÁ¤.
-1.6 pA amplitudeÀÇ single current pulse°¡ single Na ä³Î proteinÀ» ÅëÇØ È帧À» È®ÀÎ.
:various duration of the current pulses: channelÀÌ ¿­·ÁÀÖ´Â ½Ã°£. Æò±Õ 0.7 ms.
:channel opening timeµµ varying
:adding together--->Sum of channel currents:
Na ä³ÎÀº depolarizationÈÄ 1.5 ms¿¡ °¡Àå ºó¹øÈ÷ ¿­¸®°í ´ÝÈû
10 msÈÄ¿¡´Â minimal (inactivation of Na channel)
Fig. 2.13: Three States of the Na channels
1. Closed activatable: ¸·ÀÇ depolarization¿¡ ÀÇÇØ open activated ¶Ç´Â
closed inactivated states·Î Àüȯ
2. Open activated: repolarization ¶Ç´Â hyperpolarization¿¡ ÀÇÇØ
closed activatable state·Î Àüȯ
¸·ÀÇ depolarization¿¡ ÀÇÇØ closed inactivated state·Î
3. Closed inactivated: repolarization ¶Ç´Â hyperpolarization¿¡ ÀÇÇØ
closed activatable state·Î Àüȯ
Currents through Single K channels
Fig. 2.12: ¿ìÃø: +2 pAÀÇ small current pulses
channel opening duration: varying, average 5 ms
opening periodµ¿¾È K channelÀº ¸Å¿ì ºü¸£°Ô open-close¸¦ ¹Ýº¹
(bursts of channel opening)
depolarizationµ¿¾È K channelÀº inactivationÀÌ ¾ÈµÇ°í °è¼Ó open & close.
Sum of channel currents: delay opening, then stays constant
Na channel°ú´Â ´Þ¸® Àû¾îµµ 5°¡Áö typeÀÇ K channelµéÀÌ ¹ß°ßµÇ¾ú´Ù.
---> APÀÇ shapeÀ» ´Ù¸£°Ô ÇÔ (repolarization velocity, afterpotentials)
Currents through single Ca channels
CellÀÌ depolarizeµÇ¸é¼­ Ca channelµµ ¿­¸°´Ù.
Na°ú ´õºÒ¾î Ca influx (inward calcium current)
¼¼Æ÷³» Ca ³óµµ´Â ¸Å¿ì³·´Ù (µû¶ó¼­ EcaÀÌ Ek º¸´Ù ´õ positiveÇÏ´Ù)
axonal membrane¿¡¼­ gCa°¡ gNa¿¡ ºñÇØ »ó´ëÀûÀ¸·Î À۾Ƽ­ APºÐ¼®½Ã negelected.
½Å°æ¼¼Æ÷ÀÇ dendrites³ª axon terminal¿¡¼­´Â depolarization½Ã gCa°¡ gNa¸¦ ´É°¡.
Cardiac muscle, smooth muscle¿¡¼­µµ gCa°¡ Áß¿ä
¼¼Æ÷³»¿¡ Ca Áõ°¡(from 10-7 to 10-6 mol/l)´Â intracellular control function¿¡
Áß¿äÇÏ´Ù(protein kinaseÀÇ È°¼ºÈ­)
Fig. 2.14: Single calcium-channel curretns in cardiac muscle cells
600 msµ¿¾È -70¿¡¼­ +10 mV·Î ¸·À» depolarize½ÃŰ¸é¼­ channel currents Á¶»ç
1 pA amplitude, individual opening: 1 ms, closures between them: 0.2 ms
Summmed currents: rapid onset and slow inactivation (time constant: 130 ms)
Channel kinetics: closed 1<---> closed 2<----> open
closed 1 & 2: frequency & duration of the bursts
closed 2 & open: frequency & duration of the individual openings Modulation of Ca channel activity
e.g., adrenalin: increases the frequency of the bursts
increases Ca influx, cAMP mediated. closed 1--->closed 2


Moleculs of the Na channel
Fig. 2.15: Model of Na+ channel in the membrane
¿©·¯ Á¾·ù channel proteinµéÀº ±¸Á¶¿Í ±â´É¸é¿¡¼­ ¼­·Î À¯»çÇÏ´Ù.
Ca2+ channel¿¡¼­ À¯·¡µÇ¾ú´Ù°í Á¦¾ÈµÇ¾ú´Ù.
Na+ channel molecule: MW: 300K, glycoprotein, amino acid sequenced
Isolated channelÀ» artificiallipid membrane¿¡ ³ÖÀº ÈÄ¿¡µµ ¿¬±¸°¡´É
1-50 Na+ channels/um2, mean channel separation: 0.5 nm
signle channelÀÌ 1 msµ¿¾È ¿­·Á ÀÖÀ» ¶§: ¾à 1 pAÀÇ currents°¡ È帣¸ç
ÀÌ ¶§ 6,000 Na+ ÀÌ À̵¿ÇÑ´Ù. membrane potentialÀ» 100 mV shiftÇϱ⿡ ÃæºÐ
¼¼Æ÷³»ÀÇ [Na+]i´Â negligible
Na+ channel must be selective for Na+
AnionsµéÀº ä³Î ÀÔ±¸ÀÇ À½ÀüÇÏ¿¡ ÀÇÇØ ¸øµé¾î¿Â´Ù.
Small cationÀÎ Li+Àº Àß Åë°úÇÑ´Ù. ±×·¯³ª K+Àº excluded.
channel Åë°ú½Ã ionÀÌ channel protein¿¡ bindingÇÑ´Ù.
Membrane potentialÀÌ º¯ÇÒ ¶§ permeability¸¦ »¡¸® º¯È­½ÃÄѾßÇÑ´Ù.
---> membraneÀÇ field strengthÀÇ º¯È­¿¡ µû¶ó channel moleculeÀÇ charge°¡ º¯È­.
ÀÌ·¯ÇÑ chargeÀÇ º¯È­°¡ gating current·Î¼­ ÃøÁ¤µÈ´Ù. (Àû¾îµµ 4 charges)
:field sensor·Î¼­ channel moeculeÀÇ conformationÀ» open state·Î µÇ°Ô²û
Open state´Â unstableÇϸç ÀÚµ¿ÀûÀ¸·Î closed-inactivated state·Î ÀüȯµÊ
ÀÌ·¯ÇÑ inactivation°úÁ¤Àº ¸·³»ºÎ ÂÊÀÇ channel protein¿¡ ÀϾ´Ù.
Iodate, pronase, ƯÁ¤ toxinµé¿¡ ÀÇÇØ inactivationÀÌ ¾ïÁ¦µÉ ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù.
Local anesthetics(LA): Na+ channel blocking:
prevent excitation & its propagation in nerves
binding only to the open channels (ä³Î ÀÔ±¸¿¡¼­)
lipid-soluble ÇÑ LA´Â ä³Î ¾ÈÀ¸·Î µé¾î°¥ ¼öÀÖ´Ù (¸·¾ÈÂÊÀ¸·Î ºÎÅÍ)
2.4 Electrotonus and Stimulus

ÈïºÐÀº ¸·ÀÌ threshold level·Î depolarizeµÇ¾î¾ß ÀϾ´Ù: stimulation°úÁ¤
stimulus¶õ ¸·À» depolarize½ÃŰ´Â electric current
passive behavior of the membrane VS. excitation (AP)
without altering ionic conductance

Electrotonus in the case of Homogenous Current Distribution

Fig. 2.16: Electrotonic potential of a spherical cell
±¸Çü ¼¼Æ÷¿¡ current injection Çϰí MPÀ» ÃøÁ¤
Ãʱ⿡´Â »¡¸® depolarizeÇÏ´Ù°¡ slow down--->
: ¸·À» ÅëÇÑ ion current¿Í electrode¸¦ ÅëÇØ ÁØ electric current¿Í °°¾ÆÁø´Ù.
ÀÌ ¶§ÀÇ potentialÀÇ º¯È­¸¦ electrotinic potential ¶Ç´Â electrotonus¶ó ÇÑ´Ù.
final amplitude of the electrotonus´Â
membrane resistance¿¡ ºñ·Ê (membrane conductance¿¡ ¹Ýºñ·Ê)
ÃʱâÀÇ electrotonusÀÇ ºü¸¥ »ó½ÂÀº membrane capacitance¿¡ ÀÇÇØ °áÁ¤µÇ¸ç,
À̶§ capacitive current¸¸ È帥´Ù.
countercurrent°¡ È帣±â ½ÃÀÛÇÒ ¶§ electrotonus´Â exponentially º¯È­

Electrotonus in Elongated Cells

Fig. 2.17:
´ëºÎºÐÀÇ ½Å°æ°ú ±ÙÀ°¼¼Æ÷´Â ¸Å¿ì ±æ´Ù.
current¸¦ ÁÖ¾úÀ» ¶§ ±¸Çü¼¼Æ÷¿¡¼­¿Í´Â ´Þ¸® current distributionÀÌ ÀϾ´Ù
current injection site·Î ºÎÅÍ ¸Ö¾îÁö¸é¼­ electrotonusÀÇ ³ôÀ̰¡
exponentially °¨¼Ò(EmaxÀÇ 37% ¶³¾îÁø ÁöÁ¡--->
membrane length cinstant: º¸Åë 0.1 - 5 mm in other cells)
°¡±îÀÌ: steep slope, ¸Ö¸®: delayed, slow rise

Membrane polarization by way of extracellular electrodes
Fig. 2.18:
Extrceullr application of current
anodal (positive) electrode: current flows from anode to cathode
membrane capacitorÀÇ Áõ°¡
ÀÌ¿¡ µû¶ó MPÀÇ º¯È­: K+ ion flows in: hypopolarized
cathodal (negative) electrode: depolarization
nerveÀڱؽà anodal(reference) electrode´Â large surface area¸¦ °®´Â
cathodal electrode(stimulating electrode)·Î ºÎÅÍ ¸Ö¸® µÐ´Ù

Stimulus and Threshold

threshold¸¦ Áõ°¡ÇÏ´Â depolarizing electrotonus°¡ ÁÖ¾îÁ³À» ¶§ excitation
ÀÌ ¶§ÀÇ current pulse¸¦ stimulus¶ó ÇÑ´Ù.
membrance capacitance ¶§¹®¿¡ few msec ÈÄ¿¡ threshold¿¡ µµ´Þ
µû¶ó¼­ stimulus´Â ÀûÀýÇÑ ±â°£µ¿¾È ÁÖ¾î¾ß ÇÑ´Ù.

Near-threshold stimuli
Fig. 2.19:
dendrites³ª soma´Â Á¾Á¾ threshold¿¡ °¡±îÀÌ depolarizeµÇ¾î ÀÖ¾î
ÀÛÀº MPÀÇ º¯È­¿¡ ÀÇÇØ Á¤º¸°¡ AP·Î Àü´Þ µÇ³Ä ¾ÈµÇ³Ä°¡ °áÁ¤ µÈ´Ù.
threshold¿¡¼­ AP »ý¼º---> gNa Áõ°¡---> Na+ influx---> ¸·ÀÇ ÀÚµ¿Àû depol.
Depolarization¿¡ µû¸¥ Na+ inflow´Â threshold level¿¡¼­ °©ÀÚ±â ÀϾÁö ¾Ê´Â´Ù.
4 depolarizing & 4 hyperpolarizing current pulse¸¦ ÁÙ ¶§ MP ÃøÁ¤
2 small depolarizing electrotonus´Â 2 small hypolarizing electronus¿Í ´ëĪÀû
3rd & 4th depolarizing electrotonus´Â »ó´ëÀûÀÎ hyperpolarizing electrotonus¿¡
ºñÇØ »¡¸® Áõ°¡Çϰí Å©´Ù. 5th: suprathreshold
: local response= extra depolarization
ÀÌ ¤¨ Na+ inflow°¡ K+ outflow¸¦ ´É°¡ÇÏÁö¸¸ AP»ý¼º¿¡´Â ¸ø ¹Ìħ

2.5 Propagation of the Action Potential

Measurement of Conduction Velocity
Fig. 2.20: Extracelluar AP recording from a nerve
ÇÑ Áö¿ª ÀÚ±ØÇÏ¸é ¸Ö¸® ¶³¾îÁø °°Àº nerveÀÇ ÇÑ ÁöÁ¡¿¡¼­ °°Àº Å©±âÀÇ AP ÃøÁ¤°¡
but with delay (protpotional to the distance from the stimulus site)
motor nerve 100 m/sec
right--->left ·Î Àüµµ
electrode 1: ¸·ÀÇ Ç¥¸éÀÌ electrode 2¿¡ ºñÇØ negative
---> positive voltage change
electrode 2¿¡ ÈïºÐÀÌ Àü´Þ µÇ¾úÀ» ¶§: negative AP
overal votage change recorded with two electrodes: diphasic
two phases of the diphasic potential usually overlap



The compound action potential of a mixed nerve
Fog. 2.21, Table 2-1
Àüü nerve¿¡¼­ recording
A-alpha, beta, gamma, delta & C-fiber groups

Mechanism of Conduction

Na ion influx¿¡ µû¶ó ¿·ÀÇ ÈïºÐµÇÁö ¾ÊÀº ¸·¿¡ depolarizing electrotonusÁ¦°ø
propagation of excitation by electrotonic coupling

Membrane currents during the conducted action potential
Fig. 2.22:
AP: from right to left
A: leftÂÊÀ¸·Î ¸·À» depolarize(gNa Áõ°¡), electrotonic spread of + ions
C: right ÂÊÀÇ ¸·Àº depolarization prevented by high gK
(if gK is relativel low or some depolarizing effects---> repetitive ÈïºÐ)

Factors determining conduction velocity
amplitude of the inward Na+ current
(Na+ ³óµµ ³·Ãã, enhanced inactivation of the Na+ system, local anesthetics
---> Na+ influxÀúÇÏ--> Àüµµ¼Óµµ °¨¼Ò)

resistance and the capacitance of a unit area of membrane: ´ëü·Î µ¿ÀÏ
Electrotonic spread: fiber diameter°¡ ÁÖ·Î °áÁ¤
membrane area: proportional to diameter
cross-sectional area: " to the square of the diameter
Áõ°¡µÈ fiber diameter---> cross sectional area¿¡ ÀÇÇØ °áÁ¤µÇ´Â
longitudinal resistance°¡ °¨¼Ò--->
more extensive spread of the electrotonic currents
(increase in length constant): predominant
membrane diameterÀÇ Áõ°¡--> membrane capacitance°¡ Áõ°¡-->
conduction velocity °¨¼Ò: minor
CV: fiber diameterÀÇ square root·Î Áõ°¡.

Conduction in myelinated axons

Fig. 2.23 Saltatory conduction in myelinated fiber
nodes of Ranvier
conduction time through the internode: practically zero
internode: electrotonic spread without decrement
delay occurs only at nodes: to reach threshold and elicit AP
Na+ channel density°¡ 100X than unmyelinated fibers
CV: above 3m/sec, myelinated fibers



2.6 The Triggering of Impulse Volleys by Long-Lasting Depolarization
Rhythmic impluse generation
Mechanism of impulse-volley generation